• The use of writing to record human thought marks the transition from prehistory to history.
• Karl Jaspers (1883–1969) has called the “Axial Period” (1953), more commonly translated as the “Axial Age.”
• the period of time from the so-called axial age to the development of rich philosophical traditions in Africa, Asia, and the Americas.
• questions concerning the origins of the cosmos and the nature and purpose of human life, morality, justice, human excellence, knowledge, and so forth
• a move from mythos to logos, where mythos signifies the supernatural stories people tell, while logos signifies the rational, logical, and scientific stories they tell
• The earliest philosophers in Greece, Rome, India, China, and North Africa all used mythological and analogical (analogy-based) stories to explain their rational systems, while religious texts from the same period often engage in serious, logical argumentation.

Challenges in Researching Indigenous Philosophy

• the study of Indigenous philosophies, or ethnophilosophy, often must rely on different methods than typical academic philosophy
• Indigenous philosophy is not usually recorded in texts that can be read and analyzed.
• must engage in the kind of research often used in ethnographic and sociological study

Indigenous African Philosophy

• If the transition from mythos to logos is predicated on the development of written language, then this transition may have first occurred in Africa
• research has relied heavily on oral traditions or the rediscovery and translation of written evidence.
• young Africans identified as having intellectual promise were sent to study at European universities, where they read Plato, Aristotle, Kant, Hegel, and other Western philosophers; the result was the failure to preserve knowledge about the history and thought of localities and regions.
• Tempels rejected the characterization of African philosophy and theology as consisting of magic, animism, and ancestor worship, instead exploring the richness of Bantu thought pertaining to individuals, society, and the divine
• the Bantu understood as various forces, including human forces, animal forces, and mineral forces. They viewed the universe as comprising all of these forces, and these forces could directly impact the “life force” of an individual
• The concept of ubuntu holds that human beings have a deep natural interdependence, to the point that we are mutually dependent on one another even for our existence.
• communitarian philosophy, which refers to ideas about politics and society that privilege the community over the individual.
• Yoruba philosophy. The Yoruba are a prominent ethnic group in Nigeria and other locations in sub-Saharan Africa.

Indigenous North American Philosophical Thought

• Like many Indigenous African peoples, Native American peoples did not rely on written documents to preserve their history and culture but instead preserved knowledge through oral tradition.
• Any attempt to define Indigenous North American philosophical thought is further complicated by the fact that thousands of distinct societies have existed on the continent
• some generalizations of Indigenous North American philosophy are true more often than not.
  • the perception that the creative process of the universe is akin to the thought process.
  • more than one being is responsible for the creation of the universe—and that these beings do not take on anthropomorphic forms

Mesoamerican Philosophy

• Mesoamerican peoples developed both pictographic/hieroglyphic and alphabetic/phonetic forms of writing that allowed them to record thoughts and ideas, providing modern scholars access to some of the philosophical reflection that occurred within these societies.
• Includes writings of the Maya and the Aztec

Mayan Writings

• language that appears to have been a combination of an alphabetic/phonetic language and a pictographic/ hieroglyphic language
• This writing appears on stone slabs, pottery, and sculptures as well as in books called codices (plural of codex), written on a paper made from tree bark.
• The Maya possessed advanced knowledge of mathematics and natural philosophy

Maya Calendar

• The Maya developed a calendar that tracked many cycles simultaneously, including the solar year and the “calendar round,” a period of 52 years.
• The Maya had a complex understanding of time. They recognized an experiential or existential aspect of time—for instance, observing that disinterest or concentration can elongate or shorten time.

Maya Concept of Time and Divinity

• The Maya had a complex understanding of time. They recognized an experiential or existential aspect of time—for instance, observing that disinterest or concentration can elongate or shorten time.
• a view of the world that was pantheistic and monist, meaning that it viewed all reality as composed of a single kind of thing and that thing was divine in nature

Aztec Metaphysical Thought

Teotl

• teotl is a power or energy that is entirely amoral.
• Teotl is not a static substance but a process through which nature unfolds. It changes continually and develops through time toward an endpoint or goal, a view that philosophers call teleological
• time was not linear but rather cyclical.
• teotl is both the matter from which everything in the universe is made and the force by which things are created, change, and move, it is an all-encompassing, dynamic, and immanent force within nature

Aztec Epistemological Thought

• Aztec epistemology understood the concept of knowledge and truth as “well- rootedness.”
• To say that someone knows or understands the truth is to say that they are well- grounded or stably founded in reality
• Being well-grounded means understanding the ways reality presents itself and being capable of acting according to what reality dictates.
• rooting oneself in the constantly changing and growing power of teotl was considered necessary because existence on Earth was considered to be “slippery,” meaning that it is part of a process of cyclic change that is constantly evolving

Beginning with the Vedic texts, which date from between the seventh and sixth centuries BCE, Indian philosophical traditions are a few centuries older than the earliest European philosophical traditions.

The Vedic Tradition

The four Vedas are the oldest of the Hindu scriptures.

• The Rig-veda is a collection of the “family books” of 10 clans, it is the most ancient of the 4
• Sama-veda contains many of the Rigveda hymns but ascribes to those hymns melodies
• Yajur-veda contains hymns that accompany rites of healing and other types of rituals
• Atharva-veda incorporates rituals that reveal the daily customs and beliefs of the people

The Later Texts and Organization

each Veda now consists of four sections

• the Samhitas, or mantras and benedictions—the original hymns of the Vedas;
• the Aranyakas, or directives about rituals and sacrifice;
• the Brahmanas, or commentaries on these rituals;
• Upanishads, which consists of two Indian epics as well as philosophical reflections.
  • one of them is: Bhagavad Gita (Song of the Lord)

Metaphysical Thought in the Vedic Texts (Rigveda)

• The Vedic texts state that through reflection on the self, one comes to understand the cosmos
• The Rigveda examines the origin of the universe and asks whether the gods created humanity or humans created the gods
• universe is cyclical in nature and mirrors the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth among humans and other animals.
• The key question is how one puts an end to this cycle; answer lies in purification, with ascetic rituals provided as means to achieve freedom from the cycle of reincarnation.

Classical Indian Darshanas

darshana derives from a Sanskrit word meaning “to view". The term darshana is also used to refer to six classical schools of thought based on views or manifestations of the divine—six ways of seeing and being seen by the divine The six principal orthodox Hindu darshanas are Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta

(1) Samkhya

Samkhya is a dualistic school of philosophy that holds that everything is composed of purusha (pure, absolute consciousness) and prakriti (matter)

(2) Yoga

Yoga has become popularized as a fitness practice throughout the world, but the Westernization of this concept has emptied it of much of its original content.

Yoga is the mental process through which an individual’s soul joins with the supreme soul

1. yamas, moral restraints that keep individuals from being violent (practicel of celibacy
2. niyamas: personal codes of conduct — purity, discipline, self-study, contentment (gratitude and nonattachment), and surrender to the higher being
3. ubuntu: postures (familiar to western practioners)
4. asana: breath control
5. mastering of the senses
6. ability to concentrate deeply
7. meditation
8. the oneness of the self and true reality

(3) Nyaya

Nyaya, which can be translated as “method” or “rule,” focuses on logic and epistemology

(4) Vaisheshika

• They believe that only perception and inference as forms of reliable knowledge; only complete knowledge can lead to purification and liberation

(5) Mimamsa

investigate dharma, or the duties, rituals, and norms present in society. They believe language prescribes how humans ought to behave.

(6) Vedanta

• Vedanta comprises a number of schools that focus on the Upanishads,
• Vedanta means the the end or culmination of the Vedas.
• Brahman exists as the unchanging cause of universe
• The self is the agent of its own acts (karma), and each agent gets their due as a result of karma

Chinese characters on a stone axe dating to 5,000 years ago. The so-called Five Emperors and the great leaders Yao, Shun, and Yu are frequently referenced in early writing.

Early Chinese Philosophical Thought prior to Confucius

• the most enduring impact of classical Chinese philosophy pertained to ethics.
• the earliest Chinese texts reveal a concern with the supernatural and highlight the connections that were thought to exist between human beings and the spiritual realm.
• Great rulers governed not only the affairs of human beings but also the spiritual forces that influence human affairs
• Writings from this period also show the beginnings of the theory of yin and yang, the two fundamental forces that are characterized as male and female, or dark and light, or inactivity and activity.
• distinguishing between identity and harmony, where harmony is understood to produce new things, while identity does not.

Confucianism

• Confucius (551–479 BCE) was the founder of Confucianism, a philosophy that has influenced society, politics, and culture in East Asia for more than 2,000 years.
• he spawned an entire class of scholars known as shih, who were trained in classical studies and language and were only suited for teaching and government work
• Confucianism as a form of virtue ethics because it is an approach to ethics that focuses on personal virtue or character.

Benevolence and Reciprocity

• • de is closely related to moral virtue in the sense that de identifies characteristics of a person, understood to be formed through habitual action, that make it more likely the person will act in morally excellent ways.
• The ethical obligations of children to their parents are frequently captured in the notion
• the five constant virtues are ren, yi, li, zhi, and xin
• ren is benevolence, yi is righteousness, li is propriety, zhi is wisdom, and xin is trustworthiness
• An important concept in Confucianism is zhong, usually translated as “loyalty.” Another related virtue is reciprocity. they all are expressions of the underlying virtue of benevolence.
• the goal of Confucius’s teaching as relating a way or pattern of behavior that could be adopted by careful student

Wisdom and the Dao

• dao is usually translated as the way, but in confucianism, it's better translated as 'teaching'
• the goal of Confucius’s teaching as relating a way or pattern of behavior that could be adopted by careful student

Propriety and Junzi

• li is propriety, which means: following the appropriate rituals in the appropriate contexts
• junzi, a person who represents the goal or standard of ethical action and acts as a model for others

The Legacy of Confucius

• many of Confucius’s disciples became influential teachers. The greatest among them were Mencius (372–289 BCE) and Xunzi (c. 310–c. 235 BCE).
• Mencius
  • human beings are innately benevolent and have tendencies toward the five constant virtues
  • Given that human beings are innately good, it remains for them to develop the appropriate knowledge of how to act on that goodness in order to become virtuous.
• Xunzi
  • By contrast with Mencius, Xunzi held that human beings have an innately detestable nature but that they have the capacity to become good through artifice (deliberate action)
• Neoconfucianism: Han Yu and Li Ao reinvigorated classical Confucianism with less emphasis on tradition and religion and a greater emphasis on reason and humanism

Daoism

• Daodejing, commonly attributed to Laozi or the “Old Master,” and the Zhuangzi
• Daoism is a belief system developed in ancient China that encourages the practice of living in accordance with the dao, the natural way of the universe and all things
• Daoism is associated with a countercultural religious movement in ancient China, contrary to the dominant, traditionalist Confucianism.
• a kind of anarchism, resisting traditional hierarchies and authorities.

The Dao as a Metaethical Concept

• The dao itself is understood as a natural force that guides all life
• The general moral guidance of Daoism involves becoming aware of the dao and ensuring that one’s action doesn’t oppose natural force
• If reality is fundamentally contradictory and escapes the human capacity to capture it in language, then the person who wants to remain closest to fundamental reality should refrain from attempting to categorize it and should be willing to live with contradiction.
• Skepticism, the belief that one can never attain certain knowledge, is established in Daoism.

The Ethics of Wuwei

• wuwei, meaning nonaction, softness, or adaptiveness to the circumstances at hand.
• flow, a psychological state to be completely absorbed in the task, losing awareness of themselves as distinct ego and being receptive to the task at hand
• Spontaneity is another characteristic of someone who follows the dao:

Mohism

• Mozi was a universalist, insisting on the equal value of all people, without preferential treatment for family, neighbors, and country.
• Insisting on a more rational approach to ethics and a rejection of hierarchical norms

Inclusive Care and Anti-aggression

• every human being is valued equally in the eyes of heaven (tian)
• The doctrine of inclusive care leads directly to the doctrine of anti-aggression because the greatest threat to human well-being and care is aggression and war.
• Inclusive care is the cause of benefit, while partial care is the cause of harm.
• Mozi insists on finding an objective standard that is not fallible in the way a particular person or cultural tradition may be. Ultimately, the only acceptable model is heaven, which is entirely impartial in its concern for all human beings.
• Mohism as a form of consequentialism, a philosophical approach that looks at the consequences of an action to determine whether it is moral.

Mohist Epistemology

• Mohists consider a wide range of possible candidates for models, including a rule, law, or definition; a person (i.e., a role model); and a tool or measuring device, such as a yardstick or compass.
• the pragmatic character of Mohism
• For Mohists, there is little value in investigating the conceptual or ideal nature of terms like white and black.

Ch 3 Review Questions — The Early History of Philosophy around the World

3.1 Indigenous Philosophy

1. How are the terms mythos and logos used to classify bodies of thought? Mythos is referring to myths or stories for a particular thought or idea, for example, how we invited agriculture. Logos is using rational to explain these ideas.

2. What are some of the challenges of studying Indigenous philosophy? Most were passed down orally and there were many tribes, meaning that there were many variants (though some general ideas can be identified). Plus, the talented indigenous people were sent to european school to learn european philosophy.

3. How did the study of African thought as a philosophy begin? Not sure - are we referring to professor sophie something?

Note: with the study of bantu people by missionary Placide Tempels, who found that the Bantu people (known for many tribes in subsahara africa) did not practice magism or animism, and that they had a philosophical system consisting of many sources (life source is what dictates human's life)

4. What are some of the shared metaphysical ideas between African and Native American philosophies? i remember tteutl, but i don't quite remember what it is.

Note: humans are fundamentally relational and communal (a 'we' not an 'I'). we're mutually dependent on each other

5. How did Maya rulers use the metaphysical beliefs of their society to establish political legitimacy? I don't remember, should i look up my notes? I remember calendar and how time is perceived differently etc but not sure how it relates to political philosophy.

Note: using calendar to predict eclipse; this was enough for them to secure legitimacy

3.2 Classical Indian Philosophy

6. What are some similarities between classical Greek and Indian philosophies? Both existed for a long time? I don't know? Can you be more specific here. New: they both claim that the self is connected with the universe, and that through self-examination one can understand the universe better.

7. What cosmological ideas emerged from the Rigveda? I don't remember. I remember Vedas is important and there are three types of veda (?). And then Yoga is one of 8 steps to reach 'something'. forgot what it is. New: (1) whether man creates the universe or universe creates man, and (2) that the world is a cycle (and therefore also a cycle of birth and death and reincarnation)

8. What metaphysical approach is advanced by the Samkhya school of philosophy? i don't remember. I know there were a few schools. That everything consists of matter and consciousness

9. What is the principal epistemological tool found in the Nyaya school of philosophy? They use logic and method Note: they identify 4 pramanas: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony.

3.3 Classical Chinese Philosophy

10. Why is Confucianism considered a conservative philosophy? Because confusianism is all about preserving order and relation. One dominant (e.g. state / parent) and the other is the dominated (child). The dominant is 'benevolent' and the dominated should listen and serve them.

11. What are the five constant virtues in Confucianism?

• 仁 (ren/jan4) — 仁愛 benevolence, loving others
• 義 (yi/yi6) — 正義 righteousness, doing what is right
• 禮 (li/lai5) — 禮儀 propriety, following proper rituals and etiquette
• 智 (zhi/zi3) — 智慧 wisdom, knowing what is good and right
• 信 (xin/seon3) — 誠信 trustworthiness, keeping your word

12. What is the relational and communal character of Confucian ethics? I forgot the words I am looking for, but it can be characterized as

Note: the relationship between parent/child, state/individual. It's all about respect and reciprocity and loyalty

13. What are the legacies of Confucianism and Mohism, and what factors might explain this?

Confucianism has neo-confucianism: this is less ritual and more based on logic. Mohism can be argued from a good perspective (people are inherently good) or bad perspective (people are inherently bad but can be tamed via rules or 'artifice' / deliberate actions).

Note: Confucianism supports hierarchy, whereas Mohism supports that everyone has equal rights.

14. What is the most central doctrine of Mohism, and how does it contrast to Confucian ethics?

Mohism is that everyone is equal to tian (Heaven). Confucian has an obvious hierarchy.

15. In what way can Daoism be seen as a rejection of Confucianism?

Daoism says we shouldn't force things and follow the way, which is passive, natural and spontaneous. Confucianism is about rituals, order, which can be seen as forced.

16. What are unifying themes within Daoism?

Not sure what is mean here but does the above not answer my question? Daoism says we shouldn't force things and follow the way, which is passive, natural and spontaneous.

Note: wuwei (spontaneity) and skepticism (words cannot fully capture reality)